Kebudayaan Sintashta

Kebudayaan Sintashta

Periode	Zaman Perunggu pertengahan akhir
Tanggal	2050–1900 SM
Jenis situs	Sintashta
Situs induk	Sintashta Arkaim Petrovka
Ciri	Pengolahan tembaga dan perunggu yang luas Pemukiman berbenteng Penguburan senjata yang rumit Kereta perang paling awal yang diketahui
Didahului oleh	Kebudayaan Barang Kawat Kebudayaan Poltavka Kebudayaan Abashevo
Diikuti oleh	Kebudayaan Andronovo

Topik Indo-Eropa
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Bahasa Bahasa-bahasa rumpun Indo-Eropa Sintas Albania Armenia Balti-Slavi Balti Slavi Kelti Jermani Heleni Yunani India-Iran India-Arya Irani Itali Romawi Punah Anatolia Tokharia Paleo-Balkan Dacia Iliria Liburnia Mesapia Misia Payonia Frigia Trakia Reka Ulang bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa Fonologi: hukum bunyi, Aksen, Ablaut Hipotetis Dako-Trakian Greko-Armenia Greko-Arya Greko-Frigia Indo-Het Italo-Keltik Trako-Iliria Tata bahasa Kosakata Akar kata Kata kerja Kata benda Kata ganti Kata bilangan Partikel Lain-lain Proto-Anatolia Proto-Armenia Proto-Jermanik (Proto-Nordik) Proto-Keltik Proto-Italik Proto-Yunani Proto-Balto-Slavik (Proto-Slavik) Proto-Indo-Iran (Proto-Iran)
Filologi Pustaka bangsa Het bahasa Luwian Hieroglif Linear B Regweda Avesta Homer Behistun Prasasti Galia Prasasti Latin Prasasti Runa Ogam Alkitab Gotik Alkitab Armenia Aksara Tokaria sumber tertulis Irlandia Kuno
Asal usul Tanah air Bangsa Masyarakat Agama Arus utama Hipotesis Kurgan Migrasi Indo-Eropa Suku bangsa nomaden Eurasia Alternatif dan yang masih diragukan Hipotesis Anatolia Hipotesis Armenia Teori Keluar dari India Tanah air Baltik Teori kontinuitas Paleolitik
Arkeologi Zaman tembaga Stepa Pontus Domestikasi kuda Kurgan Budaya Kurgan Budaya stepa Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka Novotitorovka Kaukasus Maykop Asia Timur Afanasievo Eropa Timur Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Eropa Utara Corded Ware Baden Dnieper tengah Zaman perunggu Stepa Pontus Kereta perang Yamnaya Katakombe Multi-cordoned Ware Poltavka Srubna Stepa Utara/Timur Abashevo Andronovo Sintashta Eropa Amphora globular Corded ware Beaker Unetice Trzciniec Zaman Perunggu Nordik Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian Asia Selatan Baktria–Margiana Yaz Kubur Gandara Zaman Besi Stepa Chernoles Eropa Trako-Kimmeri Hallstatt Jastorf Kaukasus Kolkhis India Tembikar abu-abu dicat Tembikar Hitam Utara
Bangsa dan Masyarakat Zaman perunggu Anatolia (Orang Het) Armenia Mikenai Orang Indo-Iran Zaman besi Indo-Arya Bangsa Indo-Arya Iran Iran Skit Persia Medes Parthia Asia Timur Wusun Yuezhi Eropa Bangsa Kelt Galia Keltiberia Keltik luar Kimeria Yunani Italik Jermanik Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Trakia Dacia Iliria Frigia Zaman Pertengahan Asia Timur Tokharia Eropa Baltik Slavia Albania Suku bangsa Norse/Skandinavia Pertengahan Abad Pertengahan Indo-Arya India abad pertengahan Iran Persia Raya
Agama dan mitologi Rekonstruksi Agama Proto-Indo-Eropa Agama Proto-Indo-Iran Agama Iran Kuno Historis Het India Weda Hindu Buddha Jainisme Sikh Iran Persia Majusi Kurdi Yazidisme Yarsanisme Skithia Ossetia Lain-lain Armenia Eropa Paleo-Balkan Yunani Romawi Kelt Irlandia Scot Breton Wales Kernowyon Jermanik Anglo-Saxon Jerman daratan Paganisme Nordik Baltik Latvia Lithuania Slavia Albania Praktik peribadatan Penyembahan api Korban kuda Sati Titik balik matahari musim dingin/Yule
Kajian Indo-Eropa Sarjana Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Lembaga Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publikasi Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
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Kebudayaan Sintashta (bahasa Rusia: Синташтинская культура, translit. Sintashtinskaya kul'tura) yang pernah berlangsung sekitar tahun 2050–1900 SM, adalah tahap pertama dari Kebudayaan Sintashta–Petrovka^[1] atau Kebudayaan Sintashta–Arkaim,^[2] dan merupakan suatu kebudayaan arkeologis yang pernah ada pada Zaman Perunggu Pertengahan Akhir^[3] terletak di Pegunungan Ural Selatan, di Stepa Eurasia. Seluruh Kawasan Sintashta–Petrovka diteliti tahap dan penanggalan dalam karya penelitian terbaru oleh Stephan Lindner, berdasarkan serangkaian 19 sampel penanggalan radiokarbon yang diperkirakan pada tahun 2050–1750 SM.^[4]^[5] Tahap kebudayaan Petrovka diperkirakan pernah berlangsung pada tahun 1900–1750 SM.^[6]^[7] Analisis tertua yang dapat diandalkan dari sisa-sisa tulang-belulang manusia dari Sintashta adalah radiokarbon dengan tanggal rata-rata 2198±66 SM (2335–2041 calBC), dan dianalisis secara genetika sebagai Y-haplogroup R1a-Z93 < R-Z2124.^[8]

Kebudayaan Sintashta sebelumnya diperkirakan berlangsung pada tahun 2200–1800 SM.^[9]^[10]^[11] Pada penelitian tahun 2020, Ventresca Miller dkk. masih mengklaim periode tersebut berlangsung tahun 2400–1800 SM,^[12]^[13] berdasarkan 44 penanggalan kalibrasi C14 sebelumnya oleh Akademi Ilmu Pengetahuan Rusia, yang oleh beberapa peneliti lain dianggap sudah ketinggalan zaman. Kebudayaan ini dinamai dari situs kepurbakalaan Sintashta, di Oblast Chelyabinsk, Rusia, dan menyebar melalui Oblast Orenburg, Bashkortostan, dan Kazakhstan Utara.

Kebudayaan ini dianggap mewakili migrasi ke timur masyarakat dari Kebudayaan Barang Kawat. Kebudayaan Sintashta secara luas dianggap sebagai asal mula Indo-Iran.^[14]^[15] Kereta perang paling awal yang diketahui telah ditemukan di pemakaman Sintashta, dan kebudayaan ini dianggap sebagai kandidat kuat untuk asal-usul teknologi kereta perang yang menyebar ke seluruh dunia dan memainkan peran penting dalam peperangan kuno.^[16]^[17] Pemukiman Sintashta juga dikenal karena banyaknya penambangan tembaga dan pengolahan perunggu yang dilakukan di sana, yang tidak biasa untuk kebudayaan stepa lainnya.^[18] Di antara ciri-ciri utama budaya Sintashta adalah militerisme tingkat tinggi dan permukiman berbenteng yang luas, 23 di antaranya diketahui.^[19]

Referensi

Catatan kaki

^ Koryakova 1998b.
^ Koryakova 1998a.
^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 362: "...The publication of new radiocarbon data series from selected burial sites in the South-eastern Urals has helped to establish a much more accurate chronology for the late Middle Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka complex (Hanks et al. 2007: 362, fig. 3)..."
^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 367: "...The 12 calibrated radiocarbon dates belonging to the Sintashta horizon range between 2050 and 1760 cal BC (at 95.4% confidence; Epimakhov & Krause 2013: 137). These dates correlate well with the seven AMS-sampled Sintashta graves in the associated KA-5cemetery, which date to 2040–1730 cal BC (95.4% confidence...)".
^ Chechushkov, Igor, (2018). Bronze Age Human Communities in the Southern Urals Steppe: Sintashta Petrovka Social and Subsistence Organization, Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburg, p. iv: "...the Late Bronze Age Sintashta-Petrovka chiefdoms of the southern Urals (cal. 2050–1750 BC)..."
^ Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age", in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.27: Five AMS dates for Petrovka culture are "within the range 1880-1750 BC...", these are dates of two sites, Ustye and Kulevchi (Molodin et al., 2014, p.142), "which are located on the territory of Sintashta culture..."
^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 364: "...Indeed, a new radiocarbon series has confirmed the position of the Petrovka stage in the nineteenth to eighteenth centuries BC (Krause et al. 2019). Recent research at the enclosed settlement of Kamennyj Ambar in the Karagajly Ajat River valley (Chelyabinsk Oblast) supports this stratigraphic evidence, based on the existence of different occupation phases...."
^ Allentoft, ME (11 Juni 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. Nature Research. 522 (7555): 167–172. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103
^ Chernykh, E. N. (2008). "Formation of the Eurasian 'Steppe Belt' of Stockbreeding Cultures: Viewed through the Prism of Archaeometallurgy and Radiocarbon Dating", in Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 35/3 (2008), Elsevier: "...radiocarbon estimates...accumulated and systematized at the Laboratory of the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow)...Sintashta, 44 dates; Abashevo, 22; and Petrovka, only nine...the ranges of sum probabilities within the 68% limits: they strikingly coincide, falling between the 22nd and the 18th/17th cent. BC..." (pp. 38 and 48).
^ Chernykh, E. N., (2009). Formation of the Eurasian Steppe Belt Cultures: Viewed Through the Lens of Archaeometallurgy and Radiocarbon Dating, in B. Hanks & K. Linduff (eds.), Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals and Mobility, Cambridge University Press, pp. 128–133.
^ Parpola, Asko, (2017). "Finnish vatsa – Sanskrit vatshá – and the formation of Indo–Iranian and Uralic languages", in SUSA/JSFOu 96, 2017, p. 249.
^ Ventresca Miller, Alicia R., et al., (2020 b). "Ecosystems Engineering Among Ancient Pastoralists in Northern Central Asia", in Frontiers in Earth Science, Volume 8, Article 168, 2 June 2020, p. 6: "...Middle Bronze Age (2400–1800 cal BCE) people, often referred to as Sintashta, constructed nucleated settlements, with population estimates ranging from 200 to 700 individuals..."
^ Ventresca Miller, A. R., et al., (2020 a). "Close management of sheep in ancient Central Asia: evidence for foddering, transhumance, and extended lambing seasons during the Bronze and Iron Ages", in STAR, Science & Technology of Archaeological Research, p. 2: "...By 2300 cal BCE, Middle Bronze Age sites associated with Sintashta and Petrovka cultural groups in northern Kazakhstan heavily exploited domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats alongside horses with occasional hunting of wild fauna..."
^ Mallory & Mair 2008, hlm. 261.
^ Anthony 2007, hlm. 408–411.
^ Raulwing, Peter (2000). Horses, Chariots and Indo-Europeans – Foundations and Methods of Chariotry Research from the Viewpoint of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Budapest: Archaeolingua Alapítvány
^ Holm, Hans J. J. G. (2019): The Earliest Wheel Finds, their Archeology and Indo-European Terminology in Time and Space, and Early Migrations around the Caucasus. Series Minor 43. Budapest: ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPÍTVÁNY. ISBN 978-615-5766-30-5
^ Hanks & Linduff 2009.
^ Semyan, Ivan, and Spyros Bakas, (2021). "Archaeological Experiment on Reconstruction of the 'Compound' Bow of the Sintashta Bronze Age Culture from the Stepnoe Cemetery", in EXARC Journal Issue 2021/2, Introduction.

Daftar pustaka

Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
Allentoft, ME (11 Juni 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. Nature Research. 522 (7555): 167–172. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. Parameter |s2cid= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
Anthony, D. W. (2009). "The Sintashta Genesis: The Roles of Climate Change, Warfare, and Long-Distance Trade". Dalam Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 47–73. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.005. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6.
Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Princeton University Press
Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. (2009). "Late Prehistoric Mining, Metallurgy, and Social Organization in North Central Eurasia". Dalam Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 146–167. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.005. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6.
Koryakova, L. (1998a). "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-02-28. Diakses tanggal 16 September 2010.
Koryakova, L. (1998b). "An Overview of the Andronovo Culture: Late Bronze Age Indo-Iranians in Central Asia". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-02-28. Diakses tanggal 16 September 2010.
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Kuzmina, Elena E. (2007). Mallory, J. P., ed. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004160545.
Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2008). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500283721.
Mathieson, Iain (November 23, 2015). "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians". Nature. Nature Research. 528 (7583): 499–503. doi:10.1038/nature16152. PMC 4918750 . PMID 26595274.
Narasimhan, Vagheesh M. (September 6, 2019). "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 365 (6457): eaat7487. doi:10.1126/science.aat7487. PMC 6822619 . PMID 31488661.