Eclipses in mythology and culture

Eclipses of the Sun and of the Moon have been described by nearly every culture. In cultures without an astronomical explanation, eclipses were often attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens.

Religious and cultural practices

While solar and lunar eclipses are today understood astronomically as one celestial body shadowing another, their appearance from Earth does not intuitively belie a similar cause for each.^[1] Mark Littmann, Fred Espenak, and Ken Willcox classified solar eclipse mythologies into four distinct genres:^[2]

• A celestial being (usually a monster) attempts to destroy the Sun.
• The Sun fights with its lover the Moon.
• The Sun and Moon make love and discreetly hide themselves in darkness.
• The Sun god grows angry, sad, sick, or neglectful.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

In the Talmud, solar eclipses are described as ill omens^[3] and several events in the Hebrew Bible are said to have occurred during eclipses.^[4] Judaism at large has been accepting of the modern astronomical explanation of eclipses and today many rabbis consider eclipses to be reminders of divinity and a time for prayer and introspection.^[5]

Christianity

The periodicity of lunar eclipses been deduced by Neo-Babylonian astronomers in the sixth century BCE^[6] and the periodicity of solar eclipses was deduced in first century BCE by Greek astronomers, who developed the Antikythera mechanism^[7] and had understood the Sun, Moon, and Earth to be spherical celestial bodies^[8] since Aristotle.^[9] The astronomical understanding of eclipses was thus well understood in the Ancient Near East in which Christianity developed. The New Testament describes the sky as darkening for hours during the crucifixion of Jesus.^[10] As the event's lengthy duration and occurrence on the day of a full moon made it clear to contemporary believers that it could not be an eclipse, early Christians interpreted this as an omen and sign of Jesus's divinity.^[11] In 12th-century Christian Europe, eclipses were thus connected to earthly rule, where the deaths of Charlemagne and Henry I were preceded by solar and lunar eclipses.^[12] Saints were often also connected with eclipses, with a solar eclipse at their death a sign of their holiness.^[13] Christian eschatology makes mention of eclipse-like phenomena, where Revelation 6:12 describes how "the sun became black as sackcloth, the full moon became like blood."^[14] A minority of modern Christians believe eclipses to portend the Second Coming.^[15]

Islam

Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world was well-developed, and contributions included Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar's translation of Ptolemy's Almagest, in which he corrected Ptolemy's method for predicting eclipses.^[16] Theologically, the Quran explicitly rejects notions of the sun and moon's divinity:

Do not prostrate to the sun or the moon, but prostrate to Allah, Who created them ˹all˺

— Surah Fussilat 41:37

In one hadith, Muhammad objects to followers' treatment of an eclipse as an omen and states that eclipses have no bearing on earthly life and death:

We were with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) when the sun eclipsed. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) stood up dragging his cloak till he entered the Mosque. He led us in a two-rak`at prayer till the sun (eclipse) had cleared. Then the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said, "The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of someone's death. So whenever you see these eclipses pray and invoke (Allah) till the eclipse is over."

— Sahih al-Bukhari 1040

Because Muhammad instructed his followers to pray during eclipses as reminders of God's power, many Muslims today consider it sunnah to conduct a special prayer during solar eclipses, known as salat al-kusuf.^[17] With modern eclipse prediction techniques, Muslim congregations today announce solar eclipse prayers in advance^[18][19] as Islam places a great theological weight on communal prayer.^[20]

Hindu mythology

According to Hindu mythology, solar and lunar eclipses, known in Sanskrit as grahana (Sanskrit: ग्रहणं, romanized: Grahaṇam, lit. 'Eclipse'), occur when the celestial gods Rahu and Ketu swallow the Sun and Moon respectively.^[21][22]

Hindus generally believe that a grahana is a bad omen, and is considered the best time to chanting mantras that ward against evil.^[23] Fasting is practiced for up to six hours before an eclipse. Food is often prepared only after the passing of the eclipse, and conventions regarding consuming meals at given hours in the context of the event are prescribed in the Kurma Purana.^[24] During an eclipse, Hindus are considered unclean. They bathe and offer prayers to ancestors. Pilgrimage sites situated adjacent to a river throng with devotees during the onset of a grahana in some regions.^[25] Pregnant women are considered to be especially at risk to the effects of an eclipse and are expected to adhere more strictly to rituals to prevent birth deformities in their children.^[26] It is regarded to be a bad omen to be born during an eclipse, and Brahmins are often called upon to ritually bless such babies.

Native American traditions

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas have very diverse cultural practices and beliefs about eclipses.

Maya

Since the sixteenth century, Western scholars have been interested in "eclipse glyphs" recorded by the Maya civilization in the Dresden Codex, thought by historians to be predictions of solar and lunar eclipses.^[27] As there is no evidence for Maya understanding of heliocentrism or celestial orbits, it is likely that such eclipse predictions were made entirely from observed periodicity.^[28] However, some scholars argue that the glyphs in the Mayan codices refer to skies darkened from heavy rainfall, and not to eclipses.^[29]

Aztec

In Aztec mythology, solar eclipses occurred when the jaguar god Tepēyōllōtl consumed the sun and threatened to swallow it completely, according to Eduard Seler's analysis of the Codex Vaticanus B.^[30] A 16th century passage from the Florentine Codex gives an account of a solar eclipse:

Then there were a tumult and disorder. All were disquieted, unnerved, frightened. There was weeping. The common folk raised a cry, lifting their voices, making a great din, calling out, shrieking. There was shouting everywhere. People of light complexion were slain [as sacrifices]; captives were killed. All offered their blood; they drew straws through the lobes of their ears, which had been pierced. And in all the temples there was the singing of fitting chants; there was an uproar; there were war cries. It was thus said: "If the eclipse of the sun is complete, it will be dark forever! The demons of darkness will come down; they will eat men!"

— de Sahagún 1950, p. 2

There is no record of lunar eclipses in Aztec mythology or recordkeeping, as noted by an observer who wrote in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis about a lunar eclipse in 1510.^[31] The Aztec records of solar eclipses, when present, are tied directly to historic events; it is likely that they chose to record such events only when they coincided with social or political events.^[32]

Navajo

Navajo people consider the time during an eclipse to be a sacred moment of renewal, and refrain from all activities including eating and drinking.^[33] During an eclipse, the Sun or Moon is believed to be dying and reborn. Members of the nation should be silent in prayer and it is considered forbidden to look anywhere except down on the ground. Before modern eclipse prediction methods, Navajo people believed they could predict oncoming eclipses through their traditional songs.^[34] During the solar eclipse of October 14, 2023, the offices of the Navajo Nation, including its parks, were closed out of reverence for the eclipse.^[35]

Hopi

The Hopi people, whose reservation is an enclave of the Navajo Nation, consider eclipses to be a time of ceremony.^[36][37]

New religious movements

Some New Age and Wicca practitioners view solar and lunar eclipses as important spiritual events.^[38] As decentralized religious practices, there are no set prescribed rituals and adherents are free to explore their own exercises, which can include crystal charging,^[39] imbuing water with energy,^[40] and tarot card reading.^[41] For some Wicca practitioners, the spiritual nature of the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 was an opportunity for political activism, casting spells against the administration of Donald Trump.^[42]

Norse mythology

According to Norse mythology, a wolf named Fenrir lives in constant pursuit of the Sun. When Fenrir consumes the Sun, the end times events of Ragnarök will ensue.^[43] Historians consider it likely that the Golden Horns of Gallehus artifacts, which contain eschatological iconography, were made in response a lunar eclipse of November 4, 412 and a solar eclipse of April 16, 413.^[44]

Other Norse tribes believe that there are two wolves named Sköll and Hati that are in pursuit of the Sun and the Moon, known by the names of Sol and Mani, and that an eclipse occurs when one of the wolves successfully eats either the Sun or the Moon.^{[45][better source needed]}

Modern secular practices

Eclipse chasing

A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around Earth.^[46] A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.^[47] Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the Sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.^[48]

Educational outreach

Solar and lunar eclipses are often used by educational institutions as events for public outreach about astronomy. Lunar eclipses, which are visible by about half the planet at once, are relatively small-scale events for individual organizations and simple to plan for. In areas with extreme levels of light pollution, stargazing may be impossible and so educational stargazing is necessarily restricted to lunar eclipses.^[49] By studying lunar phases and eclipses, students can learn about the sizes and relative distances between the Sun, Earth, and Moon.^[50]

Solar eclipses happen at midday in narrow visibility bands, which allows educational organizations to plan daytime outreach events that will naturally reach large crowds. Astronomy educators often feel an obligation to ensure eclipse viewers use solar viewing glasses, and utilize outreach events to distribute glasses and encourage compliance.^[51][52] Where both a total and annular solar eclipse can be seen in relatively quick succession, outreach events can discuss the effect of the elliptical shapes of the Earth and Moon's orbits on the magnitude of eclipse.^[53] As solar eclipses trace indiscriminately across swaths of continents, rural and impoverished areas in their path can benefit from greater attention paid to educating on astronomy and science in the area.^[54][55]

Eclipses have also been opportunities for citizen science. As brief but geographically diverse events, it is difficult to organize traditional experiments across the entire viewing area. Crowd-sourced experiments have included a test of radio wave propagation,^[56] plant and animal reactions,^[57] and air temperature measurements.^[58]

Civic events

Solar eclipses are best visible in a narrow band across the planet, which places a significant logistical burden on organizations and towns in the path of totality. Southern Illinois University Carbondale found themselves at the center of the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, for which the university had to spend three years planning for the anticipated 30,000 additional visitors on what was originally scheduled as new-student move-in day.^[59] Traffic congestion before and after a solar eclipse can be severe, with crowds numbering in the hundreds of thousands filling highways and spilling off into secondary roadways.^[60]

Eclipses are opportunities for large civic gatherings outside the educational sphere. For the solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, a rural portion of Texas had planned to hold a multi-day music and arts festival.^[61] During the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump made an appearance outside the White House visible to onlookers from across the South Lawn to view the eclipse.^[62]

See also

• Solar eclipse
• Lunar eclipse
• List of films featuring eclipses
• Apollo–Soyuz: First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight. Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.
• Solar eclipses in fiction
• Solar eclipses on the Moon: Eclipse of the Sun by planet Earth, as seen from the Moon
  • Lunar eclipse: Solar eclipse of the Moon, as seen from Earth; the shadow cast on the Moon by that eclipse
• Transit of Venus: Passage of the planet Venus between the Sun and Earth, as seen from Earth. Technically a partial eclipse.
• Transit of Deimos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Deimos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars
• Transit of Phobos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Phobos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars

Notes

References

Historic primary sources

Books and academic journals

Newspapers and magazines

Web sources

Internal structureAtmosphere

Photosphere	Supergranulation Granule Faculae Sunspot Ellerman bomb
Chromosphere	Plage Spicule Moreton wave
Corona	Transition region Coronal hole Coronal loop Coronal mass ejection Nanoflare Prominence Helmet streamer Supra-arcade downflows Alfvén surface

VariationHeliosphereRelatedSpectral classExploration